| Citation: |
Tianze Shi, Ruilin Hou, Shaohua Guo. A perspective on low-temperature electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Lab, 2023, 1(3): 230003. doi: 10.54227/elab.20230003
|
A perspective on low-temperature electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries
-
Abstract
As an ideal candidate for the next generation of energy storage devices, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have received tremendous attention in recent years. However, the more extensive and harsh application environment puts forward higher requirements for the low-temperature SIBs, which is mainly limited by electrolyte-related sluggish ion transport at low temperature. This perspective focuses on the low-temperature electrolytes of SIBs, and provides the in-depth understanding of the failure reasons of organic and aqueous electrolytes in SIBs at low temperature. Then, the research progress in the low-temperature organic/aqueous electrolytes are comprehensively summarized and systematically analyzed. This review is conducted to enable the rational design of low-temperature electrolytes and further promote the development of all-climate SIB technology.
-
Keywords:
- organic electrolyte /
- aqueous electrolyte /
- ionic conductivity /
- freezing point /
- desolvation
-
-
Author Biographies
Tianze Shi obtained his BS degree from Northwest University in 2019, and received his MS degree from the Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Science in 2022. He is currently a research assistant at the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, and a research assistant in Shenzhen Research Institute of Nanjing University. His research interest focuses on electrolyte design for sodium-ion batteries and related mechanism study. 
Ruilin Hou obtained his BS degree from China University of Mining and Technology in 2017, and received his PhD from the Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Science in 2022. He is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, and a research associate in Shenzhen Research Institute of Nanjing University. His research interest focuses on electrolyte design for advanced secondary batteries and related mechanism study. 
Shaohua Guo received his PhD from the University of Tsukuba in 2015, after which he worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST). He is currently a Professor at the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Nanjing University, and a researcher in Shenzhen Research Institute of Nanjing University. His research interest involves energy materials and chemistries for advanced secondary batteries. -
References
1. H.-Y. Lu, R.-L. Hou, S.-Y. Chu, H.-S. Zhou, S.-H. Guo, Acta Phys. Chim. Sin., 2023, 39, 2211057 2. J.-Y. Hwang, S.-T. Myung, Y.-K. Sun, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2017, 46, 3529 3. Q. Wang, Y. Liao, X. Jin, C. Cheng, S. Chu, C. Sheng, L. Zhang, B. Hu, S. Guo, H. Zhou, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2022, 61, e202206625 4. S. Chu, C. Zhang, H. Xu, S. Guo, P. Wang, H. Zhou, Angew. Chem., 2021, 133, 13478 5. H. Xu, C. Cheng, S. Chu, X. Zhang, J. Wu, L. Zhang, S. Guo, H. Zhou, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 30, 2005164 6. X. Zhu, L. Wang, EcoMat, 2020, 2, e12043 7. Z. Na, W. Feng, W. Chuan, B. Ying, L. Yitong, Energy Storage Science and Technology, 2016, 5, 285. 8. Y. You, H.-R. Yao, S. Xin, Y.-X. Yin, T.-T. Zuo, C.-P. Yang, Y.-G. Guo, Y. Cui, L.-J. Wan, J. B. Goodenough, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28, 7243 9. A. Gupta, A. Manthiram, Adv. Energy Mater., 2020, 10, 2001972 10. P. Mei, Y. Zhang, W. Zhang, Nanoscale, 2023, 15, 987 11. A. Hu, F. Li, W. Chen, T. Lei, Y. Li, Y. Fan, M. He, F. Wang, M. Zhou, Y. Hu, Adv. Energy Mater., 2022, 12, 2202432 12. Y.-J. Fang, Z.-X. Chen, X.-P. Ai, H.-X. Yang, Y.-L. Cao, Acta Phys. Chim. Sin., 2017, 33, 211 13. P. Chen, C. Wu, Z. Wang, S. Li, X. Xu, J. Tu, Y.-L. Ding, ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2022, 5, 2542 14. H. Zhang, J. Song, J. Li, J. Feng, Y. Ma, L. Ma, H. Liu, Y. Qin, X. Zhao, F. Wang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2022, 14, 16300 15. X. Rui, X. Zhang, S. Xu, H. Tan, Y. Jiang, L. Y. Gan, Y. Feng, C. C. Li, Y. Yu, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2021, 31, 2009458 16. Z. Bai, X. Lv, D.-H. Liu, D. Dai, J. Gu, L. Yang, Z. Chen, ChemElectroChem, 2020, 7, 3616 17. H.-H. Fan, H.-H. Li, Z.-W. Wang, W.-L. Li, J.-Z. Guo, C.-Y. Fan, H.-Z. Sun, X.-L. Wu, J.-P. Zhang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2019, 11, 47886 18. Y.-Y. Wang, B.-H. Hou, J.-Z. Guo, Q.-L. Ning, W.-L. Pang, J. Wang, C.-L. Lü, X.-L. Wu, Adv. Energy Mater., 2018, 8, 1703252 19. J.-Y. Hwang, S.-M. Oh, S.-T. Myung, K. Y. Chung, I. Belharouak, Y.-K. Sun, Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 6865 20. S. Yuan, W. Zhao, Z. Zeng, Y. Dong, F. Jiang, L. Wang, Y. Yang, J. Zhu, X. Ji, P. Ge, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2022, 10, 22645 21. Y. Cao, X. Cao, X. Dong, X. Zhang, J. Xu, N. Wang, Y. Yang, C. Wang, Y. Liu, Y. Xia, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2021, 31, 2102856 22. B. Liu, Q. Zhang, L. Li, L. Zhang, Z. Jin, C. Wang, Z. Su, Chem. Eng. J., 2021, 405, 126689 23. M. Nowak, W. Zając, J. Molenda, Energy, 2022, 239, 122388 24. Q. Shi, R. Qi, X. Feng, J. Wang, Y. Li, Z. Yao, X. Wang, Q. Li, X. Lu, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, Nat. Commun., 2022, 13, 3205 25. Y. Xia, L. Que, F. Yu, L. Deng, Z. Liang, Y. Jiang, M. Sun, L. Zhao, Z. Wang, Nano-Micro Lett., 2022, 14, 143 26. J. Chen, Y. Peng, Y. Yin, Z. Fang, Y. Cao, Y. Wang, X. Dong, Y. Xia, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 23858 27. Z. Li, Y. Zhang, J. Zhang, Y. Cao, J. Chen, H. Liu, Y. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2022, 61, e202116930 28. F. Mo, Z. Lian, B. Fu, Y. Song, P. Wang, F. Fang, Y.-N. Zhou, S. Peng, D. Sun, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2019, 7, 9051 29. T. Yamamoto, T. Nohira, R. Hagiwara, A. Fukunaga, S. Sakai, K. Nitta, Electrochim. Acta, 2016, 211, 234 30. W. Liu, P. Liu, D. Mitlin, Adv. Energy Mater., 2020, 10, 2002297 31. H. Lu, X. Chen, Y. Jia, H. Chen, Y. Wang, X. Ai, H. Yang, Y. Cao, Nano Energy, 2019, 64, 103903 32. Z. Chen, K. Wang, P. Pei, Y. Zuo, M. Wei, H. Wang, P. Zhang, N. Shang, Nano Res., 2023, 16, 2311 33. M.-L. Xu, M.-C. Liu, Z.-Z. Yang, C. Wu, J.-F. Qian, Acta Phys. Chim. Sin., 2023, 39, 2210043 34. N. Zhang, T. Deng, S. Zhang, C. Wang, L. Chen, C. Wang, X. Fan, Adv. Mater., 2022, 34, e2107899 35. D. Hubble, D. E. Brown, Y. Zhao, C. Fang, J. Lau, B. D. McCloskey, G. Liu, Energy Environ. Sci., 2022, 15, 550 36. J. Huang, X. Dong, N. Wang, Y. Wang, Curr. Opin. Electrochem., 2022, 33, 100949 37. P. Li, N. Hu, J. Wang, S. Wang, W. Deng, Nanomaterials (Basel), 2022, 12, 3529 38. M.-D. Slater, D. Kim, E. Lee, C.-S. Johnson, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2013, 23, 947 39. D. Xiao, L. Zhang, Z. Li, H. Dou, X. Zhang, Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 44, 10 40. G. Ah-Lung, B. Flamme, F. Ghamouss, M. Maréchal, J. Jacquemin, Chem. Commun., 2020, 56, 9830 41. M.-Y. Sun, F.-D. Yu, Y. Xia, L. Deng, Y.-S. Jiang, L.-F. Que, L. Zhao, Z.-B. Wang, Chem. Eng. J., 2022, 430, 132750 42. B. Wen, Z. Deng, P.-C. Tsai, Z.-W. Lebens-Higgins, L.-F. Piper, S.-P. Ong, Y.-M. Chiang, Nat. Energy, 2020, 5, 578 43. K. Xu, A. von Cresce, U. Lee, Langmuir, 2010, 26, 11538 44. Y. Wang, X. Yang, Z. Zhang, X. Hu, Y. Meng, X. Wang, D. Zhou, H. Liu, B. Li, G. Wang, eScience, 2022, 2, 573 45. J. Zhang, D.-W. Wang, W. Lv, S. Zhang, Q. Liang, D. Zheng, F. Kang, Q.-H. Yang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10, 370 46. J. Holoubek, Y. Yin, M. Li, M. Yu, Y.-S. Meng, P. Liu, Z. Chen, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2019, 131, 19068 47. D. Lin, K. Li, Q. Wang, L. Lyu, B. Li, L. Zhou, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2019, 7, 19297 48. H. Che, X. Yang, Y. Yu, C. Pan, H. Wang, Y. Deng, L. Li, Z.-F. Ma, Green Energy Environ., 2021, 6, 212 49. Y.-B. Niu, Y.-X. Yin, Y.-G. Guo, Small, 2019, 15, 1900233 50. Y. Jin, Y. Xu, P.-M. Le, T.-D. Vo, Q. Zhou, X. Qi, M.-H. Engelhard, B.-E. Matthews, H. Jia, Z. Nie, ACS Energy Lett., 2020, 5, 3212 51. K. Mukai, T. Inoue, Y. Kato, S. Shirai, ACS Omega, 2017, 2, 864 52. L. Wang, B. Wang, G. Liu, T. Liu, T. Gao, D. Wang, RSC Adv., 2016, 6, 70277 53. Q. Li, D. Lu, J. Zheng, S. Jiao, L. Luo, C.-M. Wang, K. Xu, J.-G. Zhang, W. Xu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9, 42761 54. J. Chen, Z. Li, N. Sun, J. Xu, Q. Li, X. Yao, J. Ming, Z. Peng, ACS Energy Lett., 2022, 7, 1594 55. T.-R. Jow, M.-B. Marx, J.-L. Allen, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2012, 159, A604 56. F.-A. Soto, P. Yan, M.-H. Engelhard, A. Marzouk, C. Wang, G. Xu, Z. Chen, K. Amine, J. Liu, V.-L. Sprenkle, Adv. Mater., 2017, 29, 1606860 57. L. Raguette, R. Jorn, J. Phy. Chem. C, 2018, 122, 3219 58. Y.-X. Yao, X. Chen, C. Yan, X.-Q. Zhang, W.-L. Cai, J.-Q. Huang, Q. Zhang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 4090 59. E. Barsoukov, D. Kim, H.-S. Lee, H. Lee, M. Yakovleva, Y. Gao, J.-F. Engel, Solid State Ionics, 2003, 161, 19 60. J. Xu, J. Zhang, T.-P. Pollard, Q. Li, S. Tan, S. Hou, H. Wan, F. Chen, H. He, E. Hu, K. Xu, X.-Q. Yang, O. Borodin, C. Wang, Nature, 2023, 614, 694 61. Y. Cheng, X. Chi, J. Yang, Y. Liu, J. Energy Storage, 2021, 40, 102701 62. X. Liu, X. Zheng, X. Qin, Y. Deng, Y. Dai, T. Zhao, Z. Wang, H. Yang, W. Luo, Nano Energy, 2022, 103, 107746 63. L. Deng, K. Goh, F.-D. Yu, Y. Xia, Y.-S. Jiang, W. Ke, Y. Han, L.-F. Que, J. Zhou, Z.-B. Wang, Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 44, 82 64. X. Song, T. Meng, Y. Deng, A. Gao, J. Nan, D. Shu, F. Yi, Electrochim. Acta, 2018, 281, 370 65. Q. Hu, M. Yu, J. Liao, Z. Wen, C. Chen, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2018, 6, 2365 66. X. Zheng, Z. Gu, J. Fu, H. Wang, X. Ye, L. Huang, X. Liu, X. Wu, W. Luo, Y. Huang, Energy Environ. Sci., 2021, 14, 4936 67. Z. Wang, J. Ni, L. Li, ACS Energy Lett., 2022, 7, 4106 68. H.-J. Liang, Z.-Y. Gu, X.-X. Zhao, J.-Z. Guo, J.-L. Yang, W.-H. Li, B. Li, Z.-M. Liu, Z.-H. Sun, J.-P. Zhang, Sci. Bull., 2022, 67, 1581 69. R. Mogensen, A. Buckel, S. Colbin, R. Younesi, Chem. Mater., 2021, 33, 1130 70. R. Väli, A. Jänes, E. Lust, J. Electrochem. Soc., 2016, 163, A851 71. C. Wang, A.-C. Thenuwara, J. Luo, P.-P. Shetty, M.-T. McDowell, H. Zhu, S. Posada-Perez, H. Xiong, G. Hautier, W. Li, Nat. Commun., 2022, 13, 4934 72. Z. Tang, H. Wang, P.-F. Wu, S.-Y. Zhou, Y.-C. Huang, R. Zhang, D. Sun, Y.-G. Tang, H.-Y. Wang, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2022, 61, e202200475 73. X. Fan, X. Ji, L. Chen, J. Chen, T. Deng, F. Han, J. Yue, N. Piao, R. Wang, X. Zhou, X. Xiao, L. Chen, C. Wang, Nat. Energy, 2019, 4, 882 74. A.-C. Thenuwara, P.-P. Shetty, N. Kondekar, C. Wang, W. Li, M.-T. McDowell, J. Mater. Chem. A, 2021, 9, 10992 75. J. Holoubek, H. Liu, Z. Wu, Y. Yin, X. Xing, G. Cai, S. Yu, H. Zhou, T.-A. Pascal, Z. Chen, P. Liu, Nat Energy, 2021, 6, 303 76. H.-J. Liang, Z.-Y. Gu, X.-X. Zhao, J.-Z. Guo, J.-L. Yang, W.-H. Li, B. Li, Z.-M. Liu, W.-L. Li, X.-L. Wu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 26837 77. D.-S. Hall, J. Self, J. Dahn, J. Phys. Chem. C, 2015, 119, 22322 78. J. Zhou, Y. Wang, J. Wang, Y. Liu, Y. Li, L. Cheng, Y. Ding, S. Dong, Q. Zhu, M. Tang, Y. Wang, Y. Bi, R. Sun, Z. Wang, H. Wang, Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 50, 47 79. Y.-Q. Zheng, M.-Y. Sun, F.-D. Yu, L. Deng, Y. Xia, Y.-S. Jiang, L.-F. Que, L. Zhao, Z.-B. Wang, Nano Energy, 2022, 102, 107693 80. Z. Wang, X. Zheng, X. Liu, Y. Huang, L. Huang, Y. Chen, M. Han, W. Luo, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2022, 14, 40985 81. J. Hwang, K. Matsumoto, R. Hagiwara, Adv. Energy Mater., 2020, 10, 2001880 82. X. Hu, E. Matios, Y. Zhang, C. Wang, J. Luo, W. Li, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 5978 83. S.-A. Mohd Noor, H. Yoon, M. Forsyth, D.-R. MacFarlane, Electrochim. Acta, 2015, 169, 376 84. M. Hilder, P.-C. Howlett, D. Saurel, E. Gonzalo, M. Armand, T. Rojo, D.-R. Macfarlane, M. Forsyth, J. Power Sources, 2017, 349, 45 85. T. Rüther, A.-I. Bhatt, A.-S. Best, K.-R. Harris, A.-F. Hollenkamp, Batteries Supercaps, 2020, 3, 793 86. W. Zhou, M. Zhang, X. Kong, W. Huang, Q. Zhang, Adv. Sci., 2021, 8, 2004490 87. K. Matsumoto, C.-Y. Chen, T. Kiko, J. Hwang, T. Hosokawa, T. Nohira, R. Hagiwara, ECS Trans., 2016, 75, 139 88. H. Zhang, X. Liu, H. Li, I. Hasa, S. Passerini, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2021, 60, 598 89. F. Wan, J. Zhu, S. Huang, Z. Niu, Batteries Supercaps, 2020, 3, 323 90. A. von Wald Cresce, K. Xu, Carbon Energy, 2021, 3, 721 91. Y. Wang, H. Wei, Z. Li, X. Zhang, Z. Wei, K. Sun, H. Li, The Chemical Record, 2022, 22, e202200132 92. Y. Chen, H.-I. Okur, N. Gomopoulos, C. Macias-Romero, P.-S. Cremer, P.-B. Petersen, G. Tocci, D.-M. Wilkins, C. Liang, M. Ceriotti, Sci. Adv., 2016, 2, e1501891 93. M. Matsumoto, S. Saito, I. Ohmine, Nature, 2002, 416, 409 94. E.-B. Moore, V. Molinero, Nature, 2011, 479, 506 95. K. Zhu, Z. Sun, Z. Li, P. Liu, H. Li, L. Jiao, Adv. Energy Mater., 2023, 13, 2203708 96. T. Liang, R. Hou, Q. Dou, H. Zhang, X. Yan, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2020, 31, 2006749 97. M. Amiri, D. Belanger, ChemSusChem, 2021, 14, 2487 98. Q. Dou, S. Lei, D.-W. Wang, Q. Zhang, D. Xiao, H. Guo, A. Wang, H. Yang, Y. Li, S. Shi, Energy Environ. Sci., 2018, 11, 3212 99. F. Wang, L. Suo, Y. Liang, C. Yang, F. Han, T. Gao, W. Sun, C. Wang, Adv. Energy Mater., 2017, 7, 1600922 100. K. Zhu, Z. Sun, T. Jin, X. Chen, Y. Si, H. Li, L. Jiao, Batteries Supercaps, 2022, 5, e202200308 101. Q. Nian, S. Liu, J. Liu, Q. Zhang, J. Shi, C. Liu, R. Wang, Z. Tao, J. Chen, ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2019, 2, 4370 102. X. Wang, H. Huang, F. Zhou, P. Das, P. Wen, S. Zheng, P. Lu, Y. Yu, Z.-S. Wu, Nano Energy, 2021, 82, 105688 103. K. Zhu, Z. Li, Z. Sun, P. Liu, T. Jin, X. Chen, H. Li, W. Lu, L. Jiao, Small, 2022, 18, e2107662 104. S. Liu, T. Lei, Q. Song, J. Zhu, C. Zhu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2022, 14, 11425 105. D. Reber, R.-S. Kühnel, C. Battaglia, ACS Mater. Lett., 2019, 1, 44 106. M. Qiu, P. Sun, K. Han, Z. Pang, J. Du, J. Li, J. Chen, Z.-L. Wang, W. Mai, Nat. Commun., 2023, 14, 601 107. Y. Lu, F. Zhang, X. Lu, H. Jiang, W. Hu, L. Liu, L. Gai, Nanomaterials (Basel), 2022, 12, 1920 108. Q. Nian, J. Wang, S. Liu, T. Sun, S. Zheng, Y. Zhang, Z. Tao, J. Chen, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2019, 58, 16994 109. K. Zhu, Z. Sun, Z. Li, P. Liu, X. Chen, L. Jiao, Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 53, 523 110. R.-N. Havemeyer, J. Pharm. Sci., 1966, 55, 851 111. Y. Sun, Y. Zhang, Z. Xu, W. Gou, X. Han, M. Liu, C.-M. Li, ChemSusChem, 2022, 15, e202201362 112. H. Bi, X. Wang, H. Liu, Y. He, W. Wang, W. Deng, X. Ma, Y. Wang, W. Rao, Y. Chai, H. Ma, R. Li, J. Chen, Y. Wang, M. Xue, Adv. Mater., 2020, 32, e2000074 113. R. Chua, Y. Cai, P.-Q. Lim, S. Kumar, R. Satish, W. Manalastas, Jr., H. Ren, V. Verma, S. Meng, S.-A. Morris, P. Kidkhunthod, J. Bai, M. Srinivasan, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2020, 12, 22862 114. J.-Z. Rong, T.-X. Cai, Y.-Z. Bai, X. Zhao, T. Wu, Y.-K. Wu, W. Zhao, W.-J. Dong, S.-M. Xu, J. Chen, F.-Q. Huang, Cell Rep. Phys. Sci., 2022, 3, 100805 115. Q. Wang, C. Zhao, Z. Yao, J. Wang, F. Wu, S.-G. Kumar, S. Ganapathy, S. Eustace, X. Bai, B. Li, Adv. Mater., 2023, 35, 2210677 116. C. Yang, J. Xia, C. Cui, T.-P. Pollard, J. Vatamanu, A. Faraone, J.-A. Dura, M. Tyagi, A. Kattan, E. Thimsen, J. Xu, W. Song, E. Hu, X. Ji, S. Hou, X. Zhang, M.-S. Ding, S. Hwang, D. Su, Y. Ren, X.-Q. Yang, H. Wang, O. Borodin, C. Wang, Nat. Sustain., 2023, 6, 325 -
Rights and permissions
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Figures(7)
Tables(5)
Information
Article Metrics
Export File
Citation
Tianze Shi, Ruilin Hou, Shaohua Guo. A perspective on low-temperature electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Lab, 2023, 1(3): 230003. doi: 10.54227/elab.20230003
Format
Content
DownLoad:
-
Figure 1.
Electrolyte design strategies for LT-SIBs.
-
Figure 2.
a Ionic conductivity and b viscosity of EC-based electrolytes changes from −40 °C to 30 °C.[61] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. c Capacity retention of pouch cells with EC-based and EC-free electrolytes at various temperatures.[48] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. d Representative solvation structure conducted by MD simulations. e Viscosity and f ionic conductivity of different electrolytes changes from −40 °C to 80 °C. g The binding energy between Na+ and corresponding solvents. h Nyquist plots and EIS fitting for the Na || Na symmetric cells of EC-based electrolyte and WT electrolyte from −20 °C to 60 °C after 3 formation cycles. i Cycling performance of Na3V2(PO4)3 || Na cells with different electrolytes at 0.5 C, −20 °C.[62] Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (1.0-EP: 1.0 M NaPF6 in EC/PC, 1:1 by vol; 1.33-FE: 1.33 M NaPF6 in FEC/EMC, 1:1 by vol; 0.8-FEH: 0.8 M NaPF6 in FEC/EMC/HFE, 3:3:4 by vol).
-
Figure 3.
a Schematic diagram of LT weakly solvating electrolyte comprising NaOTf and DEGDME/DOL mixed solvent. b Heat flow of different electrolytes from 0 °C to −150 °C. c Temperature-dependent ionic conductivity of different electrolytes. Contents of d elements and e inorganic components in the SEI at −80 °C. f Cycling performance of Na3V2(PO4)3 || Na cells at 22 mA g−1 at virous temperatures.[71] Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. g Coordination numbers of 1 M NaPF6 in THF, DME, EC/DEC and PC. h Schematic diagram of ion transport in THF electrolyte and SEI. i Rate performance of HC || Na cells at −5 °C and −20 °C.[72] Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH.
-
Figure 4.
a Nyquist plots and b resistances obtained from EIS fitted plots for Na3V2(PO4)2F3@C symmetric cells. c Rate performance of Na3V2(PO4)2F3@C || Na cells from −20 °C to 60 °C.[81] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH. d Ionic conductivity of different electrolytes changes from −20 °C to 25 °C. e Temperature-dependent galvanostatic cycling of Na || Na symmetric cells with a cycling capacity of 1 mAh cm−2 at 0.5 mA cm−2. f Rate performance of Na3V2(PO4)3 || Na cells with different electrolytes at 25 °C and −20 °C.[82] Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH.
-
Figure 5.
a Fitting map of the Nyquist plots and equivalent circuit for Ni(OH)2 || NaTi2(PO4)3@C cells at different temperatures. b Cycle test of Ni(OH)2 || NaTi2(PO4)3@C cells at different temperatures at 10 C.[101] Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society. c 17 M NaClO4 electrolyte conducted by MD simulations. d ESW of 17 M NaClO4, 8.4 M NaTFSI and 1.3 M Na2SO4 electrolyte. e Cycle test of Na3V2(PO4)3 symmetric cells at different temperatures at 0.3 mA cm−2.[102] Copyright 2021, Elsevier. f Optical photograph of 3.86 m CaCl2+1 m NaClO4 electrolyte at −50 °C. g The component proportions of water with different hydrogen bond for various electrolytes. h 1H NMR results for different electrolytes. i Ionic conductivity of 3.86 m CaCl2+1 m NaClO4 electrolyte changes from −50 °C to 0 °C. j Charge/discharge curves of Na2CoFe(CN)6 || active carbon cells at −30 °C and 25 °C.[103] Copyright 2022, Wiley-VCH.
-
Figure 6.
a Conformation analysis of DMSO-water mixture conducted by MD simulations. b Raman spectra of DMSO-water mixtures with different molar fractions of DMSO. c Temperature-dependent ionic conductivity of different electrolytes. d Heat flow of hybrid electrolyte. e Rate performance of active carbon || NaTi2(PO4)3@C cell at 0.5 C at −50 °C.[108] Copyright 2019, Wiley-VCH. f Intermolecular interaction among H2O-FA clusters conducted by DFT calculations. g Comparison of the physicochemical properties for different organic cosolvents. h 1H NMR results and i heat flow of FA/water mixtures with different volume ratio of FA. j Ionic conductivity of hybrid electrolyte changes from −50 °C to 25 °C. k Rate performance of active carbon || PNTCDA cell from 1 to 8 C at −50 °C.[109] Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
